Parental Involvement:  An Overview of Current Literature

Research regarding parental involvement suggests that higher levels of parental involvement may positively affect student achievement. This involvement on the part of parents can be manifested in a variety of forms, such as creating a positive learning environment in the home, serving as a decision maker in the school, and fostering a stronger relationship between the school, the family, and the community. In addition, there is also research suggesting that school efforts in encouraging greater parental involvement are more influential in the contributions made by parents to the school system than both the household income and the parents' level of education. Efficient and consistent communication, effective teacher practices, and a strong commitment from the school district are important facets of effective parental involvement efforts.

Challenges regarding parental involvement research

Most practitioners and researchers support the policy direction of increased parental involvement, yet there is some disagreement about what constitutes effective involvement that results in increased student achievement. According to some observers, much of the research informing practice and policy lacks the scientific rigor, and, therefore, less is known about parental involvement than commonly is assumed. Many early studies suggesting the importance of parental involvement are regarded as definitive despite the equivocal nature of the data, and are often used to support positions that may not be tenable. In addition, many programs and policies promoting parental involvement are not explicitly based on the evidence that does exist, and may lead to unrealistic expectations of what parental involvement programs and practices actually are able to accomplish.

Given these limitations, however, a body of research exists, suggesting that parental involvement in the formal schooling of a child is important for that child’s academic success. In addition, there are strategies that school systems have adopted which have shown promising results in increasing parental involvement in the education of their child and in the functions of the school itself. Moreover, some communities have been successful in working to educate and enable parents to be advocates for changes in school policy and to hold school administrators accountable for results in student achievement.

The importance of a stimulating literacy and material environment

Children who are read to at an early age tend to display greater interest in reading as they mature (Arnold and Whitehurst, 1994; Snow et al., 1991). The presence of books and computers in the home show a causal relationship with educational achievement (Weinberger, 1996), and, conversely, low frequency of leisure reading is associated with low achievement (Brooks, Gorman, Harman, Hutchinson, Kinder, Moor and Wilkin, 1997). For children between the ages of 5-14, reading activity at home has a significant positive influence on students' reading achievement, attitudes towards reading and attentiveness in the classroom (Rowe, 1991). Parents who listen to their children read contribute to their child's success in school (Tizard, 1982) and this intervention works well for weak readers and minority groups (Macleod, 1996).

The effects of parent and pre-school intervention for children from low-income families

Mothers of low socio-economic status who increase their communicative interaction during book reading, namely commenting on text and relating it to the children's experiences, improve their children's literacy skills (Hockenberger, Goldstein and Haas, 1999). Combined parent and pre-school intervention for children from low-income families leads to significant increases in educational and social outcomes (Schweinhart, Barnes and Weikart, 1993). Parents' attitudes and support towards their children's learning influence performance on literacy tests irrespective of socio-economic status (Kurdek, Fine, & Sinclair, 1995). Parents who have received training and are confident can help improve poor readers' interest in and enthusiasm for reading and their reading competence (Toomey, 1993). In addition, parent interventions such as appropriate monitoring of television viewing and homework completion (Clark, 1993) and participation in joint learning activities at home (Tizard et al., 1982) have also shown to be effective in improving student achievement.

Parent engagement as a school reform strategy

One-quarter to one-third of all schools included parents to a moderate extent in most decision-making, with input on the development of parental involvement activities taken into consideration to a great extent by 31 percent of schools. The majority of public elementary schools (79 percent) reported having an advisory group or policy council that includes parents. Those schools with parents on advisory groups were more likely to consider parent input on all issues when compared to schools without such groups (NCES, 1998).
The involvement of parents in school-initiated interventions raises achievement when the structures are in place for effective partnerships (Wolfendale and Bastiani, 2000). With this in mind, a growing number of school reform initiatives seeking to transform failing schools place the engagement of a significant number of parents as one of their primary goals. These reform initiatives strive to change the culture of the school system and the quality of relationships among educators, parents, and children that will result in producing effective schools that consistently achieve at high levels . The momentum for such systemic change is situated within the context of the surrounding community, drawing upon the power of community institutions, such as churches and civic groups, to improve schools and aspects of life in the community that impact education.

Many such initiatives have been effective in improving student academic achievement and transforming the culture of schools (Lewis, 1997; Murnane & Levy, 1996). These reform efforts tend to view a school and its surrounding neighborhood as a part of an interdependent social ecology that must be understood as a whole in order to identify problems and develop solutions (Heckman, 1996; Murnane & Levy, 1996; Lewis, 1997), which responds to the concerns that some have raised regarding the individualist approach to family-school relationships that are traditionally found in educational policy (Lareau and Shumar, 1997). In contrast, several initiatives have focused on expanding the traditional role of the parent from a “consumer” role (Vincent, 1996) to a more active role by initiating action to inform or change school policies that directly or indirectly affect the education of their child. Various initiatives focus on the dynamics within schools where there is a lack of meaningful parent engagement and may examine the impact of the social and political context of the schools (Comer, 1980). These initiatives are often spearheaded through independent organizations outside the school system.

Successful collaborative reform efforts often seek to increase parents' and teachers' awareness and understanding of data and educational outcomes such as achievement scores, attendance, and dropout rates, and to provide them with the training to analyze this data with regard to the impact of their reform efforts on these outcomes (Lewis, 1997). A recent report from the Drum Major Institute for Public Policy (2003) argues that reform is unlikely to result in wide-scale school improvement unless it combines “top-down structure” with “bottom-up relationships” – that being the relationship between parents and communities – and that accountability must ultimately rest with these constituencies.

The role of fathers in schools

Fathers’ involvement in their children’s schools has a distinct and independent influence on many of these outcomes, even after controlling for variables such as the parents’ education, household income, and, in two-parent families, the mothers’ involvement. In two-parent families, involvement of both parents in school is significantly associated with a greater likelihood that their children in 1st through 12th grade get mostly A’s and that they enjoy school and a reduced likelihood that they have ever repeated a grade. Children do nearly as well if only one parent is highly involved, regardless of whether that parent is the mother or father, but they fare the worst when neither parent is involved in their schools (NCES, 1997).

The involvement of nonresident fathers in their children’s schools appears to be especially important for children in grades 6 through 12, reducing the likelihood that the children have ever been suspended or expelled from school or repeated a grade. This association remains even after taking into account the resident mothers’ involvement in the schools, education, household income, and other variables. Nonresident fathers’ involvement is also associated with a greater likelihood that children in grades 1 through 5 and in grades 6 through 12 participate in extracurricular activities (NCES, 1997).
 

Conclusions and Recommendations

Quantitative research as well as qualitative data from successful school-community partnerships suggests that parental involvement in their child’s education – at both the home and the school – plays an influential role in the educational progress of the child. Furthermore, strong school-community partnerships can be important in beginning and sustaining school reform efforts.

Successful partnerships between schools and communities share accountability, with specific individuals assuming responsibility to make these partnerships function well. Such partnerships can be initiated through a “top-down” or “bottom-up” approach, but the leadership to sustain these efforts at the school level must be strongly supported by the principal. Parents and community members must be invited and encouraged to play a meaningful role in the leadership and decision-making process of the school, and must be viewed as equal partners rather than in the traditional receptor role.

It is also essential for schools to invest in a long-term professional development strategy which supports the involvement of parents and the community, as well as making time available for teachers and staff to meet and work with parents in supporting their child’s education. Teachers as well as administrators must reach out to parents to involve them in a planning and decision-making role. Many schools are beginning to require Individual Education Plans, or IEPs, for all students – not only those enrolled in special education – in order to ensure that parents are intimately involved in the decision-making process with regard to the education of their child. Schools must commit themselves to providing the training and time necessary for teachers to accomplish these goals in order to build and sustain partnerships with parents and the community that will improve the educational performance of its students.

In forging state plans as required by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, states must ensure that parent and community-based organizations are also involved in the decision-making process. State Education Offices must provide technical assistance to school districts in creating and maintaining effective school-community partnerships, and must develop and sustain solid relationships with local and state parent-community organizations. States cannot overlook the vital relationship that parents and communities play, and must provide both the resources and the technical support needed to ensure that strong school-community partnerships continue to play a major role in school reform efforts.
 

Funding for this literature summary provided by the

Claude Worthington Benedum Foundation

References

Arnold, D.S. and Whitehurst, G.S. (1994) "Accelerating language development through picture-book reading: a summary of dialogic reading and its effects," in D.K. Dickensen, ed., Bridges to literacy, children, families and schools, Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, pp. 103-128.

Brooks, Greg, Gorman, Tom, Harman, John, Hutchison, Dougal, Kinder, Kay, Moor, Helen and Wilkin, Anne. (1997) Family literacy lasts. London: Basic Skills Agency.
 

Clark, R. (1993) Homework-focused parenting practices that positively affect student achievement. In N.F. Chavkin (Ed.), Families and schools in a pluralistic society. Albany: SUNY University Press.
 

Comer, J. (1980) School power. New York: The Free Press.
 

Heckman, P.E. (1996). The courage to change: Stories from successful school reform. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
 

Hockenberger, E.H, Goldstein, H. and Haas, L.S. (1999) "Effects of commenting during joint book reading by mothers with low SES," Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, vol. 19, no.1, pp. 15-27.
 

Kurdek, L., Fine, M., & Sinclair, R. (1995. April). School adjustment in sixth graders: Parenting transitions, family climate and peer norm effects. Child Development, 66(2), 430-445.
 

Lareau, A., & Shumar, W. (1996). “The problem of individualism in family-school policies”. Sociology of Education, extra issue, 24-39.
 

Lewis, A. (1997). Building bridges: Eight case studies of schools and communities working together. Chicago: Cross City Campaign for Urban School Reform.
 

Macleod, Flora J. (1996) "Does British research support claims about the benefits of parents hearing their children read regularly at home? A closer look at the evidence from three key studies," Research Papers in Education, vol. 11, no.2, pp. 173-199.
 

Mediratta, Kavitha, & Fruchter, Norman. (2003) From Governance to Accountability: Building relationships that make schools work. New York: Drum Major Institute for Public Policy.
 

Murnane R.J., & Levy, F. (1996). “The first principle: Agree on the problem”. In R.J. Murnane & F. Levy (Eds.), Teaching the new basic skills: Principles for educating children to thrive in a changing economy. New York: The Free Press.
 

Rowe, Kenneth (1991) "The influence of reading activity at home on students' attitudes towards reading, classroom attentiveness and reading achievement: an application of structural equation modelling," British Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 61, no.1, pp. 19-35.
 

Schweinhart, Lawrence J., Barnes, Helen V. and Weikart, David P. (1993) Significant Benefits: The High/Scope Perry Pre-school Study Through age 27. Ypsilanti, Michigan: High/Scope Press.
 

Snow C and Ninio, A. (1986) "The constructs of literacy: what children learn from learning to read books," in W.H. Teale and E. Sulzby, eds, Emergent Literacy: Writing and reading, Norwood, NL: Ablex, pp. 116-138.
 

Tizard, J., Schofield, W.N., and Hewison, J. (1982) "Collaboration between teachers and parents in assisting children's reading," British Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 52, pp. 1-15.
 

Toomey, D. (1993) "Parents hearing their children read: a review. Rethinking the lessons of the Haringey Project," Educational Research, vol. 35, pp. 223-36.
 

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1998) Parent Involvement in Children’s Education: Efforts by Public Elementary Schools.
 

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (1997) Fathers’ Involvement in Their Children’s Schools.
 

Vincent, C. (1996). Parents and teachers: Power and participation. London: Falmer Press.
 

Weinberger, Jo. (1996) "A longitudinal study of children's early literacy experiences at home and later literacy development at home and school," Journal of Research in Reading, vol. 19, no. 1, pp.14-24.
 

Wade, Barrie and Moore, Maggie. (2000b) "Starting early with books," in Sheila Wolfendale and John Bastiani, The contribution of parents to school effectiveness, London: Fulton Publishers, pp. 116-127.

Literature Summary: Parental Involvement in Schools

Challenges regarding parent involvement research

Disagreements exist in the literature over what kinds of involvement are effective
More research needs to be done on the relationship between parental involvement and student achievement
There does exist, however, a body of research that suggests parental involvement in the formal schooling of children is important to their academic success

The importance of a stimulating literacy and material environment

Children who are read to at an early age tend to display greater interest in reading as they mature
The presence of books and computers in the home shows a causal relationship with educational achievement
Low frequency of leisure reading is associated with low achievement
For children between the ages of 5-14, reading activity at home helps students’ reading achievement, attitudes towards reading and attentiveness in the classroom
Parents who listen to their children read contribute to their children’s success in school

The effects of parent and pre-school intervention for children from low-income families

Low-income mothers who increase their communicative interaction during book reading – such as commenting on text and relating it to the child’s experiences – improve their child’s literacy skills
Combined parent and pre-school intervention for children from low-income families leads to increases in educational and social outcomes
Parents' attitudes and support towards their children's learning influence performance on literacy tests regardless of socio-economic status
Parents who receive proper training can improve poor readers' interest in reading as well as their reading competence
Appropriate monitoring of television viewing and homework completion and participation in joint learning activities at home are effective in improving student achievement
Children do nearly as well if only one parent is highly involved in their schools, regardless of whether that parent is the mother or father, but they do the worst when neither parent is involved

Parent engagement as a school reform strategy

Elementary schools with parents on advisory groups are more likely to consider parental input on all issues when compared to schools without such groups
The involvement of parents in school-initiated interventions raises achievement when the structures are in place for effective partnerships
Growing number of school reform initiatives place the engagement of parents as one of their primary goals
Reform initiatives seeking to engage parents and the community are often spearheaded through independent organizations outside the school system

The role of fathers in schools

Fathers’ involvement in their children’s schools has a positive influence on student achievement, even if the father is not a resident at the child’s home
Nonresident fathers’ involvement reduces suspensions and expulsions for children in grades 6-12

Conclusions and Recommendations

Successful school-community partnerships and strong parent involvement – at both the home and the school – play an influential role in a child’s educational progress
Effective partnerships between schools and communities share responsibility and accountability for student success
Schools must support teachers and staff by investing in long-term professional development and by providing time and resources to ensure that teachers develop and maintain strong partnerships with parents and the community
States need to involve parents and community-based organizations in the responsibility of and accountability for school reform as mandated by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, and must support school districts in developing and sustaining effective school-community partnerships

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